KEEPING RECORDS FOR HEIFER MANAGEMENT
DAIRY HERD IMPROVEMENT
1989
CADY, R.A., A. HEINRICHS, & K.E. OLSON
VOLUME: NCDHIP HANDBOOK
The dairy heifer enterprise is of major economic importance to all
dairy producers throughout the United States. The purpose of the
heifer enterprise is to raise economical replacements for cows
culled from the milking herd, increase herd size, or both. Under
many circumstances, raising dairy replacements represents the
second highest cost on a farm, after raising feed crops. However,
the economic importance is underestimated because most producers do
not document the costs. For this reason, the heifer unit is often
the most poorly managed enterprise on the farm. To adequately
manage the heifer operation, farm operators must have production,
health, feed and accounting records available and use them, just as
in the milking herd or the cropping program.
The value of a bred heifer depends on many factors. Some of these
include animal breed and pedigree, the local market, and national
or global economic conditions. The cost of raising a heifer to
calving also will vary from year to year and by region of the
country, and may be more or less than purchasing an animal of
similar quality. Each herd owner needs to evaluate his or her own
situation to determine whether to raise or buy animals. Factors
that will affect the cost of raising heifers include feed expense,
labor cost and availability, housing, health related costs, and
death loss. Typically, it will cost between $1.00 and $1.50 per day
to raise a heifer to calving. Add to that the average $100 value of
a newborn calf, and the average investment in a 24-month-old heifer
is between $830 and $1,195. A breakdown of typical heifer rearing
costs is presented in Figure 1;(small version, large version).
Percentage breakdown of heifer raising costs
There are several objectives for a successful heifer raising
program. These include:
- calving at 22 to 26 months of age,
- raising animals of sufficient size to minimize calving
problems,
- producing animals that are genetically superior to the
remainder of the herd,
- producing healthy herd replacements, and
- producing an adequate number of heifers to maintain the herd
size.
Well kept, current records can help a producer meet all of these
goals.
Size and Age of Calving
First lactation production and lifetime production are both
influenced by size and age at first calving. Management decisions
have a major influence on both these items. A herd owner's goal
should be to maximize total production during a cow's productive
lifetime. Generally, younger animals are smaller and produce
slightly less milk in their first lactation than older animals, but
lifetime production is higher in these animals. Heifers calving
between 22 and 26 months of age usually will have the greatest
lifetime production (Feiz and Rimbay, 1983; Gill and Allaire,
1976). Figure 2; (small version, large version) is a graph of the expected
lifetime milk loss for Holstein heifers calving at various ages as
compared to those calving at 22 months of age. As illustrated in Figure 2,
optimum lifetime productivity is achieved when heifers calve between 22
and 26 months of age.
Change in lifetime milk production by age at calving
Size affects dystocia rates as well as production. Approximately 25
percent of all heifers have difficult calvings compared to 5
percent for older cows. The primary cause of dystocia is small
heifers having large calves (Cady, 1977; Cady and Burnside, 1982).
In order to minimize calving difficulty, it is important that
heifers be well grown, but not overconditioned. Sire selection also
can play a role. Many bulls used for artificial insemination are
evaluated for calving ease by the National Association of Animal
Breeders (NAAB). Through use of these summaries, producers can
avoid breeding heifers to a bull with a higher than average
percentage of difficult calving. Three records that have proven
useful in managing heifers so they grow well and calve at an
optimum age follow.
1. Identification and date of birth. For all phases of management
a critical item is identification. A heifer must be visibly
identified and have this information recorded. To monitor age it is
also necessary to maintain a record of the date of birth.
2. Height and weight measurements. Routine measurement, recording
and plotting of height and weight of heifers can help to pinpoint
problems in feeding and management (Heinrichs, 1987; Heinrichs and
Hargrove, 1987). These steps will help keep heifer rearing programs
on track so that heifers will be properly grown to calve at 22 to
26 months of age.
3. Breeding action sheets. Action or reminder sheets enhance
reproductive management. Lists of heifers to breed and check for
pregnancy should identify those heifers that are old enough to
breed, and later, those that need to be confirmed as pregnant.
Another action sheet is one that includes those animals due to
calve along with the date due and the service sire. This will allow
the manager to have the heifers in the desired maternity area and
also provide a way to note any heifers bred to a bull known to sire
large calves.
One final consideration: for a heifer to be properly grown so that
she is ready for calving at the desired time, owners must provide
the heifer with a balanced diet. Routine ration balancing will help
ensure that heifers are provided with the nutrients needed for
normal growth. The effectiveness of the nutrition program can be
monitored with the height and weight measurements noted previously.
Genetic Progress
First-calf heifers normally make up from 30 to 35 percent of the
milking herd. This means that they will, or should, produce a
significant portion of the calves in the replacement herd. In order
to maximize genetic progress in a herd, owners should breed heifers
as well as cows to high predicted difference (PD) sires. This
ensures that the replacement herd has the highest genetic merit
possible. The following records can be of use in monitoring genetic
progress.
1. Identification and pedigree. Again, the starting point for all
records is identification. These records should include sire, dam,
date of birth, calf number and an area for a sketch, photograph or
tattoo number. Examples of this type of record include
registration, grade ID or VIP papers and individual identification
pages. Most DHI computing centers provide a system of heifer ID
that allows electronic transfer of pedigree information at the time
a heifer enters the milking herd. Use of this system will
facilitate accurate identification.
2. Breeding information. As with cows, it is important to know
when heifers are bred, to which bull they are bred, and when they
are due to calve. This allows the manager to make any necessary
preparations before calving. It is also the starting point for
records of the next generation.
3. Genetic evaluation. Often, it is not desirable to raise all
heifers born. It is however helpful to have an estimate of the
genetic merit of all heifers. These estimates are derived from the
pedigree. This will allow removal of those animals with the lowest
production potential. An example of this type of record are
estimated transmitting ability (ETA) lists.
Heifer Health
Producing healthy, well-grown animals is the goal of all heifer
rearing programs. Concern over health begins at conception and
continues throughout the animal's life. Any health problem results
in increased labor, drug and veterinarian costs. The calves
produced will be less thrifty, slower growing, will take longer to
develop, and will be older when they enter the milking herd. The
production potential may be reduced because of the health problems
that have occurred. Two sets of health records should be
maintained.
1. Health action sheets. Many health management practices such as
vaccinations, worming and dehorning are carried out on a regular
basis. Health action or reminder lists will identify those heifers
due for such activity. Often a listing of animals by age can serve
this function.
2. Individual health records. Individual animal health problems,
treatments and routine health management practices that are
performed need to be recorded. This provides a lifetime record on
the animal and may be used for animal evaluation or culling.
Individual health records can be used to assess overall herd
health.
Heifer Herd Size
The desired size of the replacement herd for a dairy operation
should be from 50 to 60 percent of the size of the milking herd but
will vary by herd according to the desired turnover rate, the
percentage of heifers born in a particular time frame, plans for
future herd size, and heifer management. If management factors
cause heifers to calve at an advanced age, it will force the heifer
herd to be larger than normally needed to maintain milking herd
size. Calving at older ages normally increases the cost of raising
replacements.
In many herds, the number of heifers available as replacements may
be greater than the number needed to maintain herd size. When this
happens, decisions must be made on when to sell heifers. This will
normally depend on the bred heifer market. If the heifer price is
favorable, relative to the cost of raising replacements, it will be
beneficial to sell bred heifers. In situations with low heifer
prices, it is advantageous to sell heifers as young calves.
Regardless of the time when heifers are sold, facts are needed to
make the decision. Genetic evaluations of heifers should have a
major role in determining which heifers to sell. Age, size,
reproductive status and health history also may play a role in the
decision.
At least four records are needed to effectively manage the size of
the heifer herd.
1. Inventory. The first step in managing herd size is to know how
many heifers are in the herd. The inventory should show all
heifers, from newborn calves to heifers ready to enter the milking
herd. As a minimum, the inventory should show calf ID and date of
birth.
2. Height and weight measurements. As discussed previously, these
records will help to monitor the heifer rearing program. If it
takes too long to get heifers large enough to breed, the
measurements can help define management problem areas. When making
culling decisions, this information can be used to choose between
otherwise similar heifers.
3. Genetic evaluations. When culling unfreshened heifers, their
genetic potential should be one of the primary considerations.
Saving those heifers with the highest genetic value will maximize
future production.
4. Breeding records. Breeding records are needed both for heifers
that will be kept and for those to be sold. They are needed to
define the size of the heifer herd in months to come.
Options Provided by Records Centers
Each dairy records processing center (DRPC) provides some type of
heifer record for Dairy Herd Improvement members; however, there is
wide variation in the type and amount of information provided. Some
centers have report writing options that will allow members to
design the report they want. In spite of the variation in records
and the frequent changes that take place in the printed report
forms, herd owners should request the following five options:
- Inventory. As a minimum, this should include calf
identification and date of birth.
- Pedigree. Calf ID, date of birth, sire ID and dam ID. This
information might be included on the inventory.
- Breeding records. Calf ID, breeding date, service sire and due
date.
- Action sheets. Reminders of animals that need special
attention. This should include animals to dehorn, vaccinate,
register and breed, as well as animals to check for pregnancy and
calving.
- Permanent ID. All centers provide PDCA uniform application for
registry forms to facilitate registration, grade ID or VIP
applications. Many centers also provide individual calf pages for
use in recording ID and other events.
Additional options that may be useful include:
- Genetic evaluation. An estimate of the genetic merit of the
heifer based on evaluations of the sire and dam. These evaluations
should be updated each time new PD's are calculated.
- Height and weight measurements. Height and weight measurements
along with the date taken should be shown. Age group averages and
comparisons to breed averages are also desirable.
- Health records. A record of health events, date of the
occurrence, treatment and final disposition should be provided.
- Ration balancing sheet. While not an individual record,
routine ration balancing is a necessary tool for heifer management.
Summary
Records are a vital part of heifer management. They provide the
information needed in daily operations and also serve as a tool to
evaluate the success of the heifer rearing program. DRPC's provide
some of the records and options discussed in this fact sheet, but
few, if any, currently provide all of them. For details on those
available in specific areas, contact the appropriate state Dairy
Herd Improvement Association, University Extension Service or DRPC.
References
Bernard, J., et al. 1985. Dairy Heifer Enterprise Budget, 1984-85.
Ext. Bulletin 1319. Washington State University, Pullman.
Cady, R.A. 1977. Dystocia and Related Calving Traits in Dairy
Cattle. Master's Thesis. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
Cady, R.A. and E.B. Burnside. 1982. Evaluation of Dairy Bulls in
Ontario for Calving Ease of Offspring. J. Dairy Sci. 65:2150.
Feiz, E.A. and N.R. Rimbay. 1983. Optimum Age for First Calving.
Current Information Series No. 688. University of Idaho, Moscow.
Gill, G.S. and F.R. Allaire. 1976 Relationship of Age at First
Calving, Days Open, Days Dry and Herd Life to a Profit Function for
Dairy Cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 59:1131.
Heinrichs, A.J. 1987. Charting Your Heifers is Charting Your
Future. Hoard's Dairyman 132:644.
Heinrichs, A.J. and G.L. Hargrove. 1987. How Do Your Heifers
Compare? Hoard's Dairyman 132:599.
c
תתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתThe National Dairy Database (1992)תתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתת
תתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתת\NDB\DAIRY\TEXT\DA103600.TXTתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתתת
%f TITLE;KEEPING RECORDS FOR HEIFER MANAGEMENT
%f COLLECTION;DAIRY HERD IMPROVEMENT
%f ORIGIN;New Hampshire
%f DATE_INCLUDED;June 1992